Mynd Healthcare

The study arm

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Study material for every reader. Each page has a plain summary, key points, where the idea breaks down, and what to ask next. Inherited explainers are being audited for source support. Filter, jump by section, or start from a guide below.

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A

Start Here

Orientation: how to read, prepare and ask.

  1. A01Mynd Healthcare: Scope and BoundariesUnderstand the difference between general health education and clinical care, and where this website fits.
  2. A02For Patients and the PublicTurn a health question into a focused search for explanations, evidence and useful appointment questions.
  3. A03Finding the Right ExplanationMatch a health question to the kind of explanation most likely to address it.
  4. A04How to Read a Health ExplainerRead summaries, technical detail, references and uncertainty statements without losing sight of their limits.
  5. A05Health Information Is Not a DiagnosisGeneral health explanations cannot determine the cause of an individual's symptoms or replace clinical assessment.
  6. A06Preparing for a Healthcare AppointmentOrganise concerns, symptom details, medicine information and documents to support a focused healthcare conversation.
  7. A07Describing Symptoms ClearlyDescribe symptoms through timing, location, intensity, context and effects on daily life without assuming a cause.
  8. A08Understanding a ReferralUnderstand why a referral may be made and which questions can clarify its purpose and practical arrangements.
  9. A09Reading Your Care PlanRecognise common care-plan elements and identify questions about goals, actions, monitoring and follow-up.
  10. A10Questions Before a TestUse general questions to understand a test's purpose, preparation, limitations and possible next steps.
  11. A11Questions Before TreatmentExplore treatment goals, expected benefits, possible harms, alternatives and monitoring through a balanced discussion.
  12. A12Supporting Someone Through CareOffer practical help while keeping the person's preferences, consent, privacy and decision-making central.
  13. A13Core Healthcare TermsLearn foundational healthcare terms and find fuller explanations of how they are used.
B

Body & Disease Mechanisms

How the body keeps balance and what changes in disease.

  1. B01Homeostasis: Keeping Systems in BalanceHomeostasis keeps internal conditions within workable ranges through continuous adjustments that depend on context.
  2. B02Cells, Tissues and OrgansCells form tissues and organs whose functions depend on constant cooperation across the body.
  3. B03Blood Flow and CirculationCirculation connects organs by moving blood that carries gases, nutrients, waste products and chemical signals.
  4. B04Breathing and Gas ExchangeBreathing moves air, while gas exchange and circulation together supply oxygen and remove carbon dioxide.
  5. B05Immune DefenceImmune defence combines barriers, rapid responses and targeted immune memory to limit harmful threats.
  6. B06InflammationInflammation supports defence and repair, but persistent or misdirected responses can also harm tissues.
  7. B07Infection and TransmissionInfection occurs when pathogens establish themselves in a host, while transmission describes how they spread between sources and hosts.
  8. B08Hormones and Feedback LoopsHormones coordinate functions across the body through signals whose effects depend on receptors, timing and feedback.
  9. B09Metabolism and EnergyMetabolism includes the chemical processes that release energy, build body materials and manage stored fuel.
  10. B10Genes and VariationGenetic differences can influence health, but their effects range from minimal to substantial and often depend on other factors.
  11. B11How Cancer DevelopsCancer develops when altered cells escape normal controls, with different cancers following different biological paths.
  12. B12Tissue Damage and RepairHealing coordinates defence, rebuilding and remodelling, with outcomes shaped by the tissue and the conditions surrounding the injury.
  13. B13Risk Factors and CausationRisk factors change the likelihood of an outcome, while evidence of causation asks whether a factor helps produce it.
C

Tests & Diagnostic Pathways

What tests are for, how they are read, and where they fall short.

  1. C01From Clinical Question to TestA useful test begins with a clear question about what information is needed and how it could affect care.
  2. C02Screening, Diagnosis and MonitoringScreening, diagnosis and monitoring ask different questions and require evidence suited to their intended use.
  3. C03What Happens to a SampleA laboratory result depends on a connected process of collection, identification, transport, processing and reporting.
  4. C04Before Analysis: Sources of VariationPreparation, collection and handling can change a sample before laboratory measurement begins.
  5. C05Laboratory Testing MethodsLaboratory methods measure different features of a sample, each with its own strengths and limits.
  6. C06Medical Imaging MethodsImaging methods use different physical signals to answer questions about body structure or function.
  7. C07Pathology and Tissue ExaminationExamining cells and tissue can reveal patterns that help identify disease and guide its classification.
  8. C08BiomarkersBiomarkers are measurable characteristics that can provide different kinds of information about biological processes or responses.
  9. C09Reference Intervals and Decision ThresholdsReference intervals describe results in a selected population, while decision thresholds help guide particular clinical decisions.
  10. C10Sensitivity and SpecificitySensitivity and specificity describe how a test classifies people with and without a defined condition.
  11. C11Predictive Values and PrevalenceThe meaning of a positive or negative result depends partly on how likely the condition was before testing.
  12. C12Inconclusive and Discordant ResultsResults may remain uncertain or disagree because of biological differences, timing, sampling or limitations in the testing methods.
  13. C13From Result to Follow-upFollow-up combines test findings with symptoms, prior evidence and the remaining uncertainty to determine what happens next.
D

Treatment & Care Decisions

Weighing benefits, harms and alternatives.

  1. D01Goals of TreatmentTreatment can aim to cure disease, control its course, relieve symptoms or improve everyday function, often with more than one goal.
  2. D02Shared Decision-MakingShared decision-making combines clinical evidence with a person's priorities, circumstances and preferred role in decisions.
  3. D03Benefits, Harms and AlternativesComparing treatment options involves considering meaningful benefits, possible harms, uncertainty and the consequences of each reasonable alternative.
  4. D04How Medicines WorkMedicines act through different biological processes, and their effects depend on their targets, distribution and the condition being treated.
  5. D05Dose, Exposure and ResponseThe amount of medicine given influences exposure, but the resulting benefits and adverse effects also depend on how the body handles and responds to it.
  6. D06Side Effects and Adverse EventsAn adverse event happens during treatment, while attributing an effect to treatment requires an assessment of whether the treatment caused it.
  7. D07Medicine InteractionsMedicines can interact by changing each other's exposure or effects, making an accurate review of all relevant substances important.
  8. D08Surgery and ProceduresSurgery and other procedures have different goals, risks and recovery demands that form part of an informed care decision.
  9. D09RehabilitationRehabilitation supports everyday function by helping people regain abilities, maintain them or adapt to lasting changes.
  10. D10Supportive and Palliative CareSupportive and palliative care address symptoms and quality of life and can accompany treatment directed at the underlying illness.
  11. D11Monitoring Treatment ResponseMonitoring brings together symptoms, everyday function, clinical findings and tests to assess treatment benefits and harms over time.
  12. D12Treatment Burden and AdherenceTreatment can create substantial practical work, and difficulties following an agreed plan are best understood without blame.
  13. D13Second Opinions and Reconsidering OptionsAn additional clinical review can help clarify a diagnosis, treatment choices or uncertainty, while reconsideration keeps decisions aligned with changing circumstances.
E

Evidence & Research Literacy

Reading studies without being misled by them.

  1. E01What Counts as Healthcare Evidence?Different kinds of healthcare evidence answer different questions, and their usefulness depends on how well they were collected and analysed.
  2. E02From Laboratory Finding to Clinical UseMoving a laboratory finding into healthcare involves repeated testing, practical decisions and uncertainty rather than a guaranteed path to clinical use.
  3. E03Observational StudiesObservational studies examine patterns without assigning exposures, making them valuable for many questions but vulnerable to alternative explanations.
  4. E04Randomised TrialsRandomised trials use chance-based allocation to compare interventions while reducing systematic differences between groups.
  5. E05Clinical Trial PhasesClinical trial phases describe common research aims, especially for medicines, rather than a guaranteed sequence leading to successful treatment.
  6. E06Endpoints and Surrogate OutcomesA study's endpoints determine what it can show, and changes in indirect measurements do not always mean improvements that people notice or value.
  7. E07Absolute and Relative EffectsAbsolute and relative effects describe the same comparison in different ways, so both are needed to understand the size of a reported benefit or harm.
  8. E08Confidence Intervals and PrecisionConfidence intervals describe statistical uncertainty around an estimate, but they do not capture every reason a study result could be wrong.
  9. E09Bias and ConfoundingBias and confounding can systematically distort research findings, and reducing them requires careful design as well as appropriate analysis.
  10. E10Systematic Reviews and Meta-analysisSystematic reviews organise relevant research, while meta-analysis can combine numerical findings when doing so is scientifically appropriate.
  11. E11Reading a Scientific PaperReading a scientific paper critically means connecting its question and methods to its actual results, limitations and wider evidence.
  12. E12When Studies DisagreeApparently conflicting studies may differ in their questions, methods or precision, so disagreement requires investigation rather than a simple vote count.
  13. E13When Evidence ChangesResearch conclusions can change as new findings emerge, errors are corrected and the strengths and limits of existing evidence become clearer.
F

Health Data & AI

What data and algorithms can and cannot say.

  1. F01What Is Health Data?Health data includes many kinds of information about health, care and people's experiences, each with its own strengths and limits.
  2. F02The Health Data LifecycleThe health data lifecycle covers how information is collected, used, stored, shared, retained and eventually disposed of.
  3. F03Data Quality and MissingnessData quality depends on fitness for purpose, while missing information can reflect both recording problems and meaningful patterns in care.
  4. F04Labels and Ground TruthReference labels provide targets for training and evaluation, but their meaning and reliability depend on how they are created.
  5. F05Training, Validation and Test SetsSeparating data by purpose helps estimate how a model may perform on new cases and reduces misleading results from information leakage.
  6. F06Clinical AI: Prediction Is Not a DecisionA model output can inform care, but deciding what to do requires clinical context, evidence, patient preferences and clear accountability.
  7. F07Model Performance MeasuresDifferent performance measures describe different strengths and errors, so no single score can establish whether a clinical model is useful.
  8. F08Calibration and Decision ThresholdsCalibration concerns the reliability of predicted probabilities, while decision thresholds determine when an output leads to a particular action.
  9. F09Generalisability and Dataset ShiftA model's performance can change when the people, measurements or care processes in use differ from those in its development data.
  10. F10Fairness and Subgroup EvaluationSubgroup evaluation can reveal unequal model performance, but fairness also depends on data, access, clinical consequences and how a system is used.
  11. F11Explainability and Its LimitsExplanations can help people inspect model behaviour, but they do not establish that an output is correct, causal or clinically useful.
  12. F12Human Oversight and Automation BiasEffective human oversight requires clear responsibilities and practical support, because simply placing a person in the process does not prevent over-reliance.
  13. F13Monitoring and Updating Clinical AIOngoing monitoring and controlled updates help identify changing performance, investigate problems and reassess whether a clinical AI system remains suitable.
G

Safety, Ethics & Governance

Consent, privacy, harm and oversight.

  1. G01Patient Safety: Core ConceptsPatient safety focuses on reducing avoidable harm through safer systems, prevention and learning.
  2. G02Informed ConsentInformed consent is a process of understanding and voluntary agreement to a particular intervention or activity.
  3. G03Capacity and Supported DecisionsDecision-making capacity concerns a particular choice, while appropriate support can help people understand and express their decisions.
  4. G04Confidentiality and PrivacyConfidentiality concerns duties around entrusted information, while information privacy covers the wider handling of personal data.
  5. G05De-identification and Re-identification RiskRemoving identifying details can reduce privacy risk, but remaining information may still allow a person to be recognised.
  6. G06Research Ethics ReviewIndependent ethics review examines whether research adequately protects participants, while leaving continuing responsibilities with researchers and institutions.
  7. G07Conflicts of InterestConflicts of interest arise when competing interests could influence professional judgment, requiring more than disclosure alone.
  8. G08Clinical GovernanceClinical governance connects accountability, assurance and improvement so institutions can oversee the quality and safety of care.
  9. G09Quality Management SystemsA quality management system uses defined processes, controls and feedback to support consistent work and ongoing improvement.
  10. G10Incident Reporting and LearningIncident reporting can reveal hazards, but safer care depends on careful analysis, practical action and feedback.
  11. G11Healthcare CybersecurityHealthcare cybersecurity protects information and digital systems while supporting reliable access to care.
  12. G12Regulation, Standards and GuidanceRegulation, standards and guidance have different roles, and their authority depends on how they apply in a particular setting.
  13. G13Understanding Regulatory StatusApproval, clearance, registration and certification describe different processes whose meaning depends on the authority, jurisdiction and scope.
H

Scientific Methods

How medical knowledge is made and checked.

  1. H01For Scientific ReadersA guide to the questions that connect measurement, study design, validation, analysis and transparent reporting.
  2. H02Formulating a Research QuestionA clear research question connects the population, intended use, comparison and outcome to an appropriate study design.
  3. H03Protocols and Prespecified AnalysisAdvance planning makes research decisions visible and helps limit selective analysis and reporting.
  4. H04Sampling and RepresentativenessRecruitment and selection determine which people a study describes and how far its findings may extend.
  5. H05Sample Size and Statistical PowerStudy size should reflect the research goal, desired precision and explicit assumptions rather than a universal numerical rule.
  6. H06Reference Standards and ComparatorsThe choice and application of a reference standard or comparator shape what an evaluation can establish.
  7. H07Analytical ValidationAnalytical validation examines whether a measurement method measures its intended target with performance suitable for its stated use.
  8. H08Clinical ValidationClinical validation examines whether a test or model provides valid information about a clinical condition or outcome in its intended population.
  9. H09Clinical UtilityClinical utility concerns whether using a test or model leads to worthwhile effects on care compared with a relevant alternative.
  10. H10External and Prospective EvaluationExternal evaluation tests transfer beyond development data, while prospective evaluation plans observation forward in time.
  11. H11Reproducibility and ProvenanceTraceable data and versioned workflows help others understand, check and repeat a scientific analysis.
  12. H12Reporting GuidelinesStructured reporting helps readers understand and assess a study, but checklist completion does not guarantee reliable research.
  13. H13Evidence Extraction MethodThis proposed method provides a structured way to record study findings, limitations and source context without overstating the evidence.
I

Collaboration & Implementation Literacy

How teams turn knowledge into care.

  1. I01For Prospective CollaboratorsEvaluating a possible healthcare collaboration starts with a clear problem, appropriate evidence and explicit responsibilities.
  2. I02Defining an Unmet NeedA well-defined unmet need describes a meaningful gap in care without assuming that a particular technology is the answer.
  3. I03Mapping a Clinical WorkflowWorkflow mapping shows how care actually proceeds, including decisions, information transfers, delays and exceptions.
  4. I04Stakeholder and Responsibility MappingMapping affected people and decision responsibilities helps prevent important perspectives and duties from being overlooked.
  5. I05Assessing Evidence ReadinessEvidence readiness means judging whether available findings are adequate for a specific proposed use and its risks.
  6. I06Feasibility AssessmentFeasibility assessment examines whether proposed work can be carried out responsibly within real operational and technical constraints.
  7. I07Data Access and StewardshipResponsible data use requires clear purposes, appropriate permissions and accountable arrangements throughout the data lifecycle.
  8. I08Interoperability FundamentalsInteroperability requires systems to exchange information, preserve its meaning and support the work people need to perform.
  9. I09Human Factors and Usability EvaluationHuman factors evaluation examines how people, tasks, tools and working conditions interact to support or undermine safe use.
  10. I10Designing a Pilot EvaluationA pilot should answer defined feasibility questions without being mistaken for sufficient evidence of effectiveness or readiness for wider use.
  11. I11Implementation OutcomesImplementation outcomes describe how an approach is introduced and maintained, separately from whether it improves health.
  12. I12Procurement and Due DiligenceHealthcare procurement should examine evidence, operational fit and continuing responsibilities rather than relying on product claims alone.
  13. I13A Collaboration BriefA collaboration brief brings the problem, proposed use, supporting evidence and unresolved questions into one clear document.